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.Infantry tactics are the combination of military concepts and methods used by to achieve during combat. The role of the infantry on the battlefield is, typically, to close with and engage the enemy, and hold territorial objectives; infantry tactics are the means by which this is achieved. Traditionally infantry have made up the largest proportion of an army's fighting strength, and consequently often suffer the heaviest casualties. Throughout history, infantrymen have sought to minimise their losses in both attack and defence through effective tactics.Infantry tactics are the oldest method of warfare, and span all eras. In different periods, the prevailing technology of the day has had an important impact on infantry tactics. In the opposite direction, tactical methods can encourage the development of particular technologies. Similarly, as weapons and tactics evolve, so do the tactical formations employed, such as the Greek, the Spanish, the Napoleonic column, or the British.
In different periods the numbers of troops deployed as a single unit can also vary widely, from thousands to a few dozen.Modern infantry tactics vary with the type of infantry deployed. Armoured and mechanised infantry are moved and supported in action by vehicles, while others may operate amphibiously from ships, or as inserted by helicopter, parachute or glider, whereas light infantry may operate mainly on foot. In recent years, operations in support of humanitarian relief efforts have become particularly important. Tactics also vary with terrain. Tactics in areas, or areas are all markedly different.
Contents.Ancient history The infantry was a tactical formation as far back as the third millennium BC. It was a tightly knit group of s, generally upper and middle class men, typically eight to twelve ranks deep, in, and, armed with two- to three-meter (6–9 foot) and overlapping round. It was most effective in narrow areas, such as, or in large numbers. Although the early Greeks focused on the, because of local geography, the phalanx was well developed in Greece and had superseded most tactics by the. In the fourth century BC reorganized his army, with emphasis on phalanges, and the first scientific military research. Theban and Macedonian tactics were variations focused on a concentrated point to break through the enemy phalanx, following the shock of cavalry.
Carefully organized—into tetrarchia of 64 men, taxiarchiae of two tetrarchiae, syntagmatae of two taxiarchiae, chilliarchiae of four syntagmatae, and phalanges of four chilliarchiae, with two chilliarchiae of s and one chilliarchia each of and (cavalry) attached —and thoroughly trained, these proved exceedingly effective in the hands of.However, as effective as the Greek phalanx was, it was inflexible. Made their army into a complex professional organization, with a developed leadership structure and a rank system.
The Romans made it possible for small-unit commanders to receive rewards and medals for valor and advancement in battle. Another major advantage was a new tactical formation, the (adopted around 300BC ), which could operate independently to take advantage of gaps in an enemy line, as at the. Perhaps the most important innovation was improving the quality of training to a level not seen before. Although individual methods were used by earlier generations, the Romans were able to combine them into an overwhelmingly successful army, able to defeat any enemy for more than two centuries. The Roman tactical system. Main article:On the infantry level, the adapted new weapons: the (a piercing javelin), the (a short thrusting sword), and the (a large convex shield) providing protection against most attacks without the inflexibility of the phalanx.
Generally, battle would open with a volley of light pila from up to 18 m (20 yd) (and frequently far less), followed by a volley of heavy pila just before the clashing with scuta and gladii. Roman soldiers were trained to stab with these swords instead of slash, always keeping their shields in front of them, maintaining a tight formation with their fellow soldiers. To motivate the Roman soldier to come within two meters (6 ft) of his enemy (as he was required to do with the gladius) he would be made a citizen after doing so, upon completion of his term of service. Roman infantry discipline was strict, and training constant and repetitive.The legion was an improvement over the phalanx on which it was based, providing a flexibility and responsiveness unequalled before that time. By increasing dispersal, triple that of a typical phalanx, the manipular legion had the unanticipated benefit of reducing the lethality of opposing weapons.
Coupled with superb training and effective leaders, the Roman army was the finest in the world for centuries. The army's power on the field was such that its leaders avoided most fortifications, preferring to meet the enemy on open ground. To take an enemy-held, the Roman army would cut off any supply lines, build around the perimeter, set up, and force the enemy to attempt to stop them from reducing the fortification's walls to rubble. The Roman army's achievements were carefully carved in stone on, and are well documented by artifacts strewn about battlefields all over Europe.Middle Ages After the fall of the Roman Empire, many of the ingenious tactics they used disappeared. Tribes such as the and preferred to simply rush their enemies in a massive horde.
These tribes would often win battles against more advanced enemies by achieving surprise and outnumbering their foes. Born out of the partition of the Roman Empire, the created an effective military. Its were well-paid and led by commanders educated in military tactics and history. However, the army mostly relied on cavalry, making the infantry a smaller portion of its overall force.The were able to be effective against stronger enemies through surprise and mobility. Like in other wars, the Vikings could decide when and where to attack.
In part because of their flat bottomed ships, which enabled them to sneak deep into Europe by river before carrying out an attack, the Vikings could frequently catch their enemies by surprise. Were common targets because they were seldom heavily defended and often contained substantial amounts of valuables.
The Vikings were fearsome in battle, but they became even more so when they included.Battles of the Middle Ages were often smaller than those involving the Roman and Grecian armies of. Armies (much like the states of the period) were more decentralized. There was little systematic organisation of supplies and equipment. Leaders were often incompetent; their positions of authority often based on birth, not ability. Most soldiers were much more loyal to their than their state, and insubordination within armies was common.
However, the biggest difference between previous wars and those of the Middle Ages was the use of heavy cavalry, particularly. Knights could often easily overrun infantry armed with swords, axes, and clubs. Infantry typically outnumbered knights somewhere between five and ten to one.
They supported the knights and defended any loot the formation had. Infantry armed with spears could counter the threat posed by enemy cavalry. At other times pits, caltraps, wagons or sharpened wooden stakes would be used as protection from charging cavalry, while archers brought down the enemy horsemen with arrows; the English used stakes to defend against French knights at the in 1415.often became a substitute for communities and villages who could not afford large forces of heavy cavalry. The pike could be up to 18 feet (5.5 m) long, whereas the spear was only 6 to 8 feet (2.4 m) in length.
Archers would be integrated into these forces of spearmen or pikemen to rain down arrows upon an enemy while the spears or pikes held the enemy at bay. Were improved again with creation of the.
The halberd could be the length of a spear, but with an axe head which enabled the user to stab or chop the enemy cavalry with either the front of the axe or a thin point on the opposite side. The Japanese also created polearms. The consisted of an approximately 6-foot (1.8 m) long shaft and a 2.5-foot (0.76 m) blade. The naginata was often used by women to guard a castle in the absence of men. Infantry Jerusalem during theThe, which did not require trained archers, was frequently used in armies where the extensive training necessary for was not practical. The biggest disadvantage of crossbows was the slow reloading time. With the advent of steel and mechanical drawing aids, crossbows became more powerful than ever.
Armor proof against longbows and older crossbows could not stop from these improved weapons. Put a ban on them, but the move toward using this lethal weapon had already started.The first weapons usually consisted of metal tubes tied down to wooden staves.
Usually, these weapons could only be fired once. These gonnes, or, were not very accurate, and would usually be fired from city walls or in. Like the crossbow, the gonne did not require trained soldiers and could penetrate the armor worn by enemy soldiers. Missiliers (whatever their weapon) were protected by soldiers with. Knights would be on either sides of this force and close in on the enemy to destroy them after they had been weakened by volleys.
The introduction of presaged a social revolution; even an illiterate peasant could kill a noble knight.Modern history Early modern period. A in 'bastioned square,' in battle.As firearms became cheaper and more effective, they grew to widespread use among infantry beginning in the 16th century. Requiring little training, firearms soon began to make swords, maces, bows, and other weapons obsolete. Pikes, as a part of formation survived a good deal longer.
By the mid-16th century, firearms had become the main weapons in many armies. The main firearm of that period was the. Although less accurate than the bow, an arquebus could penetrate most armours of the period and required little training. In response, armor thickened, making it very heavy and expensive. As a result, the replaced the mail and full suits of armour, and only the most valuable cavalry wore more than a padded shirt.Soldiers armed with arquebuses were usually placed in three lines so one line would be able to fire, while the other two could reload. This tactic enabled an almost constant flow of gunfire to be maintained, and made up for the inaccuracy of the weapon. In order to hold back cavalry, wooden palisades or pikemen would be in front of arquebusiers.
An example of this is the., leader of the 1580s, made a number of tactical innovations, one of which was to break his infantry into smaller and more mobile units, rather than the traditional clumsy and slow moving squares. The introduction of volley fire helped compensate for the inaccuracy of musket fire by and was first used in European combat at in 1600. These changes required well-drilled troops who could maintain formation while repeatedly loading and reloading, combined with better control and thus leadership. The overall effect was to professionalise both officers and men; Maurice is sometimes claimed as the creator of the modern officer corps.His innovations were further adapted by who increased the effectiveness and speed of by using the more reliable musket and, while improving mobility by removing heavy armour. Perhaps the biggest change was to increase the numbers of musketeers and eliminating the need for pikemen by using the.
Its disadvantage was that the musket could not be fired once fixed; the overcame this issue but the technical problem of keeping it attached took time to perfect. Main article:Countries which have not been major world powers have used many other infantry tactics. In South Africa, the (regiments) were infamous for their bull horn tactic.
It involved four groups - two in the front, one on the left, and one on the right. They would surround the enemy unit, close in, and destroy them with short, or iklwas while fire-armed Zulus kept up a harassing fire. The Zulu warriors surprised and often overwhelmed their enemies, even much better armed and equipped enemies such as the British army.The fought their enemies by using a handful of riflemen to lure enemy riflemen into the range of concealed Sudanese spearmen.
In New Zealand the hid in fortified bunkers or that could withstand strikes from even some of the most powerful weapons of the 19th century before luring opposing forces into an ambush. Sometimes the natives would arm themselves with weapons similar or superior to those of the imperialistic country they were fighting. During the, Lt.
Colonel George Custer and five out of twelve companies of the 7th Cavalry were destroyed by a force of and.Unconventional infantry tactics often put a conventional enemy at a disadvantage. During the, the Boers used guerrilla tactics to fight the conventional. Boer marksmen would often pick off British soldiers from hundreds of yards away. These constant attacks forced the British infantry to begin wearing khaki uniforms instead of their traditional red. The Boers were much more mobile than the British infantry and thus could usually choose where a battle would take place.
These unconventional tactics forced the British to adopt some unorthodox tactics of their own.After 1945 The was the first major conflict following World War II. New devices, including smaller radios and the were also introduced. Parachute drops, which tended to scatter a large number of men over the battlefield, were replaced by operations using helicopters to deliver men in a precise manner. Helicopters also provided fire support in many cases, and could be rushed to deliver precision strikes on the enemy. Thus, infantry were free to range far beyond the conventional fixed artillery positions.
They could even operate behind enemy lines, and later be extracted by air. This led to the concept of (originally conceived for airborne), in which the enemy is not flanked to the left or right, but rather from above.
Main article:Jungle warfare was heavily shaped by the experiences of all the major powers in the Southeast Asian theater of operations during the. Jungle terrain tended to break up and isolate units. It tended to fragment the battle.
It called for greater independence and leadership among junior leaders, and all the major powers increased the level of training and experience level required for junior officers and NCOs. But fights in which squad or platoon leaders found themselves fighting on their own also called for more firepower. All the combatants, therefore, found ways to increase both the firepower of individual squads and platoons. The intent was to ensure that they could fight on their own. Which often proved to be the case.Japan, as one example, increased the number of heavy weapons in each squad. The 'strengthened' squad used from 1942 onwards was normally 15 men. The Japanese squad contained one (a machine gun fed from a magazine and light enough to be carried by one gunner and an assistant ammunition bearer).
A designated sniper was also part of the team, as was a grenadier with a.The squad's TO&E also included a grenade launcher team armed with what historians often mistakenly call a 'knee mortar'. This was in fact a of 50 mm that threw high explosive, illumination and smoke rounds out to as much as 400 meters. Set on the ground and fired with arm outstretched, the operator varied the range by adjusting the height of the firing pin within the barrel (allowing the mortar to be fired through small holes in the jungle canopy). The balance of the squad carried bolt-action rifles.The result was that each squad was now a self-sufficient combat unit. Each squad had an automatic weapons capability. In a defensive role, the machine gun could be set to create a “beaten zone” of bullets through which no enemy could advance and survive.
In an attack, it could throw out a hail of bullets to keep the opponent's head down while friendly troops advanced. The light mortar gave the squad leader an indirect 'hip-pocket artillery' capability. It could fire high-explosive and fragmentation rounds to flush enemy out of dugouts and hides. It could fire smoke to conceal an advance, or illumination rounds to light up any enemy target at night. The sniper gave the squad leader a long-range point-target-killing capability.Four squads composed a platoon. There was no headquarters section, only the platoon leader and the platoon sergeant.
In effect, the platoon could fight as four independent, self-contained battle units (a concept very similar to the 'chalks.' )The did extensive fighting in the jungles and rubber plantations of Malaya during the Emergency, and in Borneo against Indonesia during the Confrontation. As a result of these experiences, the British increased the close-range firepower of their individual riflemen by replacing the pre-World War II bolt-action with lighter, automatic weapons like the American M2 carbine and the.However, the British Army was already blessed in its possession of a good squad automatic weapon (the ) and these remained apportioned one per squad. They comprised the bulk of the squad's firepower, even after the introduction of the self-loading rifle (a semi-automatic copy of the Belgian ). The British did not deploy a mortar on the squad level. However, there was one 2-inch mortar on the platoon level.The took a slightly different approach.They believed the experience in Vietnam showed the value of smaller squads carrying a higher proportion of heavier weapons.
The traditional 12-man squad armed with semi-automatic rifles and an automatic rifle was knocked down to 9 men: The squad leader carried the and AN/PRC-6 radio. He commanded two fire teams of four men apiece (each containing one team leader with M16, grenadier with M16/203, designated automatic rifleman with M16 and bipod, and an anti-tank gunner with and M16).Three squads composed a platoon along with two three-man machine gun teams (team leader with M16, gunner with, and assistant gunner with M16). The addition of two M60 machine gun teams created more firepower on the platoon level. The platoon leader could arrange these to give covering fire, using his remaining three squads as his maneuver element. The combination was a particular American creation (along with its ). It did not have the range of the Japanese 50 mm mortar.
However, it was handier, and could still lay down indirect high-explosive fire, and provide support with both smoke and illumination rounds. The US Army also had 60 mm mortars. This was a bigger, more capable weapon than the Japanese 50 mm weapon. But it was too heavy for use on the squad or even the platoon level. These were only deployed on the company level.The deficiency of the US formation remained the automatic rifleman, a tradition that had gone back to the (BAR) gunner of World War II. The US Army discovered that an automatic rifle was a poor substitute for a real machine gun. A rifle fired in the sustained automatic role easily overheated, and its barrel could not be changed.
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In post-Vietnam, the US Army adopted the to replace the automatic M16. With an interchangeable barrel and larger magazine, this weapon, known as the in U.S. Inventory, provided the sustained automatic fire required.The, whose experience is 100% in primary and secondary jungle as well as rubber plantation terrain, took the trend one step further. Their squad contained only seven men, but fielded two squad automatic gunners (with 5.56mm squad automatic weapons), two grenadiers with M16/203 underslung grenade launchers, and one anti-tank gunner with rocket launcher and assault rifle.So in short, jungle warfare increased the number of short/sharp engagements on the platoon or even squad level. Platoon and squad leaders had to be more capable of independent action. To do this, each squad (or at least platoon) needed a balanced allocation of weapons that would allow it to complete its mission unaided.Mountain warfare. Main article:During the, the and fought forces called the.
Although the Soviet Army had greater and modern equipment than the Mujahideen, they were not able to completely destroy them because of the difficulty of countering tactics in the.When the missile was supplied to the Mujahideen, they began to ambush and fixed wing aircraft in proximity of the military. This was because the Stinger was only effective at a range of 15,000 feet (4,600 m), requiring the Mujahideen to attack the aircraft as they were landing or taking off. The Stinger, however, was not the 'weapon that won the war'. Although it did have a significant effect on the conduct of war, it was not used to shoot down very many aircraft. It did force the Soviets to modify their helicopter tactics. Helicopters begun to cooperate more closely with the ground forces, fixed wing aircraft began flying at higher altitudes, and armor and anti-missile electronic defense systems were added to aircraft to help protect them from the Stinger.The Soviets countered the Mujahideen tactics in various ways.
The were used extensively in by being deployed by helicopter into areas identified as areas often transited by the Mujahideen, or sites of ambushes. Spetsnaz tactics were effective against Mujahideen because they employed tactics similar to those used by the Mujahideen; tanks and aircraft were comparatively less effective due to terrain and enemy mobility in it. The only technology with a significant impact on Mujahideen were and helicopters, although over time Mujahideen were able to find ways to avoid and evade both.As the Soviet operations stalled, they began retaliating against the civilian population for supporting the Mujahideen.
It was not uncommon for Soviet helicopters to an Afghan village in retaliation for an attack against Soviet soldiers. At other times they dropped from aircraft in the and, or shooting the with helicopter weapons. Without the support of the villagers, the Mujahideen were forced to carry their own food in addition to weapons and military supplies. Another common tactic was to off and search villages for Mujahideen. These tactics were not unlike those used by the United States in Vietnam, or by the Germans against in World War II.Conventional infantry tactics are generally modified before implementation in as the defending side generally has a decisive advantage over the attacking side by holding the heights and forcing the enemy to attack uphill against a fully prepared well entrenched position. So generally, frontal assault is avoided by implementation of blockade tactics and cutting off the supply lines, thereby creating a. This changed in the of 1999 when Indian forces were faced with the huge task of flushing out intruders and disguised Pakistani soldiers who had captured high mountain posts.
Instead of employing blockade tactics, launched frontal assault against positions but the tactics were intensely modified by employment of heavy artillery cover often firing in direct role and relentless air-strikes before the ground attack. As any daytime attack would be suicidal, all the attacks were made under the cover of darkness to minimize casualties. The operation took time but was successful and all the positions were recaptured by the Indian Army after two months of fighting.
British infantry in a trench during.During the First World War, the increasing lethality of more modern weapons, such as and, forced a shift in infantry tactics to. Massed infantry charges were now essentially suicidal, and the ground to a standstill.A common tactic used during the earlier stages of trench warfare was to shell an enemy trench line, at which point friendly infantry would leave the safety of their trenches, advance across, and seize the enemy trenches. However, this tactic of ' was largely unsuccessful. The nature of no man's land (filled with barbed wire and other obstructions) was one factor. For a unit to get to an enemy trench line, it had to cross this area, secure the enemy position, then face counterattack by opposing reserves. It also depended on the ability of friendly artillery to suppress enemy infantry and artillery, which was frequently limited by 'bombproofs' , poor ammunition, or simply inaccurate fire.The casualties caused by machine gun fire led to the widespread deployment of light machine guns such as the within minor infantry units.
Trench warfare also led to the rapid development of new designs of, rifle grenades and light —all of which represented a rapid increase in the firepower available to low-level commanders. There was a growing emphasis on field craft, especially in the British and Dominion Armies, where night-patrolling and raiding tactics soon also demanded an increase in map-reading and navigation skills.
The infantryman of 1914 was content to be trained in rifle and bayonet and usually attacked in battalion formations. By 1917 he was used to grenades, rifle grenades, light machine-guns and more specialized weapons and usually worked his way forward using platoon or section tactics.An improvement was the in which artillery fire is laid immediately in front of advancing infantry to clear any enemy in their way. This played an important part in later battles such as the, of which was a part. The tactic required close coordination in an era before widespread use of, and when laying wire under fire was extremely hazardous. In response, the Germans devised the and used in which quietly infiltrated the enemy's forward trenches, without the heavy bombardment that gave advance warning of an imminent attack. The French and British/Dominion Armies were also engaged in evolving similar infantry tactics.
The introduced the to overcome the deadlock of static positions but mechanical unreliability prevented them from doing so.The Germans used specially-trained to great effect in 1918, during, breaching the Allied trench lines and allowing supporting infantry to pour through a wide breach in the front lines. Even though most of the German forces were on foot, they were soon threatening. Only timely and stiff resistance, the use of reserves, and German and manpower problems prevented an Allied disaster. After this spring offensive, the Allies launched a with tanks and small units of assault infantry protected by air support and short intense artillery barrages while the main infantry force followed and seized strongpoints. This forced the Germans back and after less than three months the allies had made the largest territorial gains on the western front since the war began. The Germans then sued for peace ending the war.Urban warfare Urban warfare draws roots from a variety of tactics and strategies. Typically fought in towns and cities, Urban combatants would encounter problems such as bystanders, buildings, and restricted mobility.
Unlike the battles of Napoleon, a modern military would be restricted by narrow alleys and roads. This allows an opponent to predict or limit the movement of one's motorized vehicles by using weapons such as IEDs, RPGs, and artillery.
This forces the infantry to push those threats out.See also.Notes. Dupuy, p.10. Dupuy, p.10-11. Dupuy, p.11. Dupuy, p.12. Dupuy, p.13.
Dupuy, p.14. The simple phalanx could be combined into a grand phalanx of four simple phalanges, a formation equivalent to a modern army. Dupuy, p.13-14. ^ Dupuy, p.16. Dupuy, p.16-17. ^ Dupuy, p.17.
Dupuy, p.19. Covering a wider area naturally reduces the tendency of any one soldier to be killed. ^ Messenger, Charles (2001). Retrieved 22 January 2018.
Dyer, Gwynne (1985). War (2006 ed.). P. 61. Dupuy, Trevor (1980). The Evolution Of Weapons And Warfare (1990 ed.). Da Capo Press.
P. 131. Mackinnon, Daniel (1883). Origin and Services of the Coldstream Guards (2017 ed.). Forgotten Books. P. 368. Custer suffered from insubordinate junior officers as much as superior enemy weapons, as shown in Sklenar, Larry.
To Hell With Honor. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
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Dyer, Gwynne. New York: Crown Publishers, 1985.World War II. World War II Infantry Tactics: Squad and Platoon, Dr Steven Bull, 2004 Osprey Ltd. Dupuy, Trevor N., Colonel, U.S.
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